Born as a slave in Farmville, Virginia. He left his master and opened a school in Hannibal, Missouri, when the Civil War started. He attended Oberlin College in 1866. In 1868 he began to accumulate considerable property in Mississippi. He was reported to be the wealthiest American Negro of the period.

Served in the Mississippi state senate and was elected sergeant of arms in 1870. Served as sheriff and tax collector in Bolivar County 1872 to 1875. He was elected to the Senate in 1874. He was the first black man to serve a full term in the Senate. He was not reelected. He married Josephine B. Wilson June 24, 1878. They had a son.

He was appointed Register of the Treasury by President James A Garfield and served May 21, 1881, to June 5, 1885. He was appointed by President Benjamin Harrison as recorder of deeds for the District of Columbia and served 1889 to 1895. President William McKinley appointed him again as Register of the Treasury and he served December 3, 1897, to March 17, 1898. His signature appears on paper money issued during those periods. He died at home in Washington, D.C.

bio: ApCAB; BDC; DAB; Limpert Addenda; NCAB 11; TCBDA; WAB; WWWA-H; NUM 82 Jun 1969 pages 749-751